The Bridgewater Treatises
on the Power, Wisdom, and Goodness of God,
As Manifested in the Creation.

___________

Treatise VIII.

CHEMISTRY METEROLOGY

AND THE FUNCTION OF DIGESTION

Considered with Reference to Natural Theology.


BY

WILLIAM PROUT,  M.D.  F.R.S.
Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians



logo

LONDON

William Pickering

1834.


This electronic edition prepared by Dr. David C. Bossard
from original documents in his personal library.

571 + 25 Pages

March, 2007.

Copyright © 2007 by David C. Bossard.



CONTENTS.

TO THE READER (First Edition)  xi  xii   Second Edition  xiii  xiv

INTRODUCTION.
OF THE LEADING ARGUMENT OF NATURAL THEOLOGY; THAT DESIGN, OR THE ADAPTATION OF MEANS TO AN END EXISTS IN NATURE.  001  002  003  004  005  006  007  008  009

BOOK I.

OF CHEMISTRY:


PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS ON THE RANK OF CHEMISTRY AS A SCIENCE; AND ON THE APPLICATION OF CHEMISTRY TO THE ARGUMENT OF DESIGN  010  011  012  013  014  015  016  017  018  019  020  021  022  023  024


CHAPTER I. OF THE MUTUAL OPERATION OF PHYSICAL AGENTS AND OF MATTER, AND OF THE LAWS WHICH THEY OBEY.  024  025  026  027

CHAPTER II. OF THE INERTIA AND ACTIVITY OF MATTER.  027  028  029  030  031

CHAPTER III. OF MOLECULAR OR POLARIZING FORCES, ETC.  031

SECTION I. Of the Divisibility of Matter  032  033  034  035  036
SECTION II. Of the Forms of Aggregation of the ultimate Molecules of Matter   036  037  038
SECTION Ill. Of the solid Form of Bodies. crystallization  038  039  040  041  042  043  044  045  046  047  048  049  050  051  052  053  054  055  056  057
Of' Electricity 45
Of Galvanism  47
Of Magnetism  48
Of Polarity 53
SECTION IV. Of the Liquid Form of Bodies.  057  058  059  060  061  062  063  064  065  066  067
Of Heat 57
Of the Effects of Heat  60
Of the Latency of Heat 61
SECTION V. Of the Gaseous Form of Bodies   067  068  069  070  071  072  073  074  075  076  077
Of the Diffusion of Gaseous Bodies  72
Of the Equal Expansion of Gaseous Bodies; and of their similar Capacity for Heat  74
SECTION VI. Of the other Properties of Heat.  077  078  079  080  081  082
Of Heat in Motion.
Of the Radiation, Conduction, and Convection of Heat  77
SECTION VII. Of Light  082  083  084  085  086  087  088  089  090  091  092
Of the Radiation of Light  82
Of the Reflection and Refraction of Light  84
Of the Polarization of Light  85
Of the Decomposition of Light  89
SECTION VIII. Of the Sources of Heat and Light   092  093  094  095
SECTION IX. Recapitulation and General Observations on the Subjects treated of in the preceding Chapters  095  096  097  098  099  100  101  102  103  104  105
Arguments in Proof of Design, deducible from the Divisibility and Molecular Constitution of Matter  98


CHAPTER IV. OF CHEMICAL ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES, AND OF THE LAWS OF THEIR COMBINATION.   105

SECTION I. Of Chemical Elementary Principles  106  107  108  109  110  111  112  113  114  115  116  117  118  119  120  121  122  123  124  125  126  127  128  129  130  131  132  133  134  135  136
Of the Supporters of Combustion; Oxygen, Chlorine, Bromine, Iodine, and Fluorine  109
Of the Acidfiable Bases; Hydrogen, Carbon, Azote, Boron, Silicon, Phosphorus, Sulfur; Selenium, Arsenic, Antimony, Tellurium, Chromium, Uranium, Vanadium, Molybdaenum, Tungsten, Titaniun, and Columbium  114
Of the Alkalifiable Bases  124
Of the Alkaline Bases; Potassium, Sodium, Lithium, Calcium, Magnesium, Strontium, and Barum  124
Of the Earthy Bases; Aluminum, Glucinum, Yttrium, Zirconium, Thorinum, and Cerium  129
Of the Difficultly Fusible Bases; Iron, Manganese, Nickel, and Cobalt  130
Of the Easily Fusible Bases; Zinc, Cadmium, Lead, Tin, Bismuth, Copper, and Mercury  132
Of the Noble Metals; Silver, Gold, Platinum, Palladium, Rhodium, Iridium, and Osmium  135

SECTION II. General Remarks upon Chemical Compounds.  136  137  138  139  140  141  142  143  144
Of PRIMARY COMPOUNDS 136
Of Acids  137
Of Alkalies and Bases 140
Of Neutral Compounds 141
Of SECONDARY COMPOUNDS; SALTS 142

SECTION III. Of the Laws of Chemical Combination.  144  145  146  147  148  149  150  151  152  153  154  155  156  157  158  159  160  161  162  163
Of the ATOMIC THEORY 156
Of the Representation of the Combining Molecules of Bodies by Numerical Series  161

SECTION IV. Recapitulation. General Reflections on the Subjects treated of in the last Section of the
preceding Chapter  163  164  165  166  167  168  169  170  171  172  173  174  175  176  177  178  179  180  181  182  183  184  185  186  187  188
Statement of the Facts on which the Atomic Theory isFounded 163
Of the Adaptation of Subordinate to Primordial Agents and Elements, and of the Means by which these Adaptations have been effected  165
Of Adaptations produced by Adjustments of Quality and Quantity  170
Of the Tendency in Nature to a State of Repose or Equilibrium  176
Of the Creation of the Elements with the Properties essential to produce perfect Compounds 182
Of the Wonderful Nature of the most Simple Chemical Processes. Conclusion  185

BOOK II.

OF METEOROLOGY:


COMPREHENDING A GENERAL SKETCH OF THE CONSTITUTION OF THE GLOBE; AND OF THE DISTRIBUTION AND MUTUAL INFLUENCE OF THE AGENTS AND ELEMENTS OF CHEMISTRY IN THE ECONOMY OF NATURE.

PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS  188  189  190  191

CHAPTER I. OF THE GENERAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH; PARTICULARLY WITH REFERENCE TO THE DISTRIBUTION OF ITS SURFACE INTO LAND AND WATER; AND WITH RESPECT TO ITS ATMOSPHERE.  191  192  193  194  195  196  197  198  199  200  201  202  203  204  205
SECTION 1. Of the General Relations of the Sea and Land to each other 191
SECTION II.Of the Ocean 193
SECTION III. Of the Atmosphere 197

CHAPTER II. OF HEAT AND LIGHT: THE MODES OF ESTIMATING THEIR DEGREE, AND THE WAYS IN WHICH THEY ARE PROPAGATED. OF THE GENERAL TEMPERATURE OF THE CELESTIAL REGIONS, AND OF THE EARTH INDEPENDENTLY OF THE SUN 205
SECTION 1. Of Heat and Light, and the Modes of estimating their Degree   205  206  207  208  209  210  211  212  213  214  215
SECTION II. Of the Propagation of Heat and Light 207
SECTION III. of the Temperature of the Celestial Regions 209
SECTION IV. Of the Temperature of the Interior of the Earth  210

CHAPTER III. OF THE TEMPERATURE OF THE EARTH AT ITS SURFACE, AS DEPENDENT ON THE SUN   215  216  217  218  219  220  221  222  223  224  225  226  227  228  229  230
SECTION I. Of Mean Temperature  217
SECTION II. Of the actual Distribution of Temperature over the Globe Of Isothermal Lines, &c. CLIMATE  219
Of the Temperature of the Poles and of the Polar Regions  219
Of the mean annual Temperature of the Equator 221
Of the Temperature of the intermediate Regions of the Globe. Of Isothermal Lines, &c.  222
CLIMATE  229

CHAPTER IV. OF THE PRIMARY CONSTITUENTS OF CLIMATE: OR OF THE TEMPERATURE OF THE EARTH, AS DEPENDENT ON ITS GLOBULAR FORM; AND ON ITS ANNUAL AND DIURNAL MOTIONS   230  231  232  233  234

CHAPTER V. OF THE SECONDARY OR SUBSIDIARY CONSTITUENTS OF CLIMATE; COMPREHENDING A SKETCH OF THOSE CIRCUMSTANCES CAPABLE OF INFLUENCING CLIMATE, WHICH ARE MORE IMMEDIATELY CONNECTED WITH THE SURFACE OF THE EARTH, AS CONSISTING OF LAND OR WATER; OR WHICH ARE CONNECTED WITH THE ATMOSPHERE.  234  235
SECTION I. Of the secondary Constituents of Climate, immediately connected with the Surface of the Earth; and depending on the Nature of that Surface as composed of Land or Water  236  237  238  239  240  241  242  243  244  245  246  247  248  249  250  251  252  253  254  255  256  257  258  259  260  261  262  263  264  265  266  267  268
1. Of the Proportion of Solar Beat and Light that actually arrives at the Surface of the Earth 236
2. Of the Distribution of Heat and Light over the Earth's Surface in the latent Form  238
3. Of the General Distribution of Electricity and Magnetism over the Earth 239
4. Of the Distribution of Light in the decomposed Form over the .Earth 243
5. Of the Laws of Absorption, Radiation, and Reflection of Heat and Light  246
6. Of the Conduction of Heat below the Earth's Surface on Land 252
7. Of the Propagation of Heat and Light below the Earth's Surface in Water  255
Of the Temperature of the Waters of the Ocean at great Depths 261
Of the under Currents of the Ocean existing between the Equatorial and the Polar Regions 263
8. Of the Differences of Temperature as depending upon whether the Surface be Land or Sea. 264
Temperature of Natural Springs  266
SECTION II. Of the secondary Constituents of Climate immediately connected with the Atmosphere  268
1. Of the Distribution of Heat and of Light through the Atmosphere, and of the Consequences  268  269  270  271  272  273  274  275  276  277  278  279  280  281  282  283
Of the Limits of Perpetual Snow  272
Of the Distribution of Heat and Light through the Atmosphere in their Latent Forms 275
Of the Propagation of Sensible Heat through the Atmosphere 275
Of Atmospheric Currents. The Trade Winds 276
2. Of the Presence of Water in the Atmosphere  283  284  285  286  287  288  289  290  291  292  293  294  295  296  297  298  299  300  301  302  303  304  305  306  307  308  309  310  311  312  313  314  315  316  317  318  319  320  321  322  323  324  325  326  327  328  329  330  331  332  333  334  335  336  337  338  339  340  341  342  343  344  345  346  347
Of the Phenomena of Evaporation and Condensation; and of the General Dependance ofVapour onTemperature  284
Of the Conditions of an Atmosphere of Vapour alone; and of a Mixed Atmosphere of Vapour and Air  288
Of the General Relations of Evaporation and Condensation as they exist in our Atmosphere; and of the Circumstances by which these Relations are Influenced 299
Of the Accidental Circumstances affecting Evaporation  305
Of the Accidental Circumstances affecting Condensation  309
Of Dew and Hoar Frost  309
Of Mists and Fogs  312
Of Clouds 315
Of Snow andSleet  322
Of Rain  324
Of Hail 331
Of the actual Quantity of Water that is evaporated and condensed over the Globe 333
Of the Distribution of Heat and Light in their latent and decomposed forms through the Vapour of the Atmosphere; and of the Effects of that Distribution  339
Of the Relations of Electricity to the Vapour of the Atmosphere 339
Of the Aurora Borealis  343
Of the Phenomena depending upon the Decomposition, Refraction, and Reflection of Light by the Vapour of the Atmosphere. The Mirage. The Fata Morgana. Halos. The Rainbow  343
3. Of the Occasional Presence of Foreign Bodies in the Atmosphere; and of their Effects 347
Of Matter suspended in the Atmosphere in a state of Mixture. Coloured Rain and Snow. Aerolites. Dry Fogs   347  348  349  350  351  352  353  354  355  356  357  358  359  360  361  362  363  364  365
Of Matters which pervade the Atmosphere in a state of Solution. Malaria  353
Recapitulation. The Arrangements of Climate demonstrative of Design  356

CHAPTER VI. OF THE ADAPTATION OF ORGANIZED BEINGS TO CLIMATE; COMPREHENDING A GENERAL SKETCH OF TIlE DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS OVER THE EARTH, AND OF THE PRESENT POSITION AND FUTURE PROSPECTS OF MAN   365  366  367  368  369  370  371  372  373  374  375  376  377  378  379  380  381  382  383  384  385  386  387  388  389  390  391  392  393  394  395  396  397  398  399  400  401  402  403  404  405  406  407  408  409  410  411  412  413  414  415  416
Of the Formation and Ingredients of the SOIL .. 366
SECTION I. Of the Distribution of Plants over the Earth  368
1. Of the Differences of Vegetation, as liable to be influenced by Soil, and by other minor Local Circumstances, in the same Climate  368
2. Of the Influence of Climate on Vegetation. Distribution of Plants  372
Profusion of Vegetable Productions  379
SECTION II. Of the Distribution of Animals over the Earth  383
1. Of the Differences existing among Animals in similar Climates  386
2. Of the Effects of Diversity of Climate on the Distribution of Animals  391
<>
Migration and Hibernation  400
Coverings of Animals  401
<>SECTION III. Of the present Position and future Prospects of Man  406
<>
<>
BOOK III.

OF THE CHEMISTRY OF ORGANIZATION:

COMPREHENDING A SKETCH OF THE CHEMICAL PROCESS OF DIGESTION AND OF THE SUBSEQUENT PROCESSES, BY WHICH VARIOUS ALIMENTARY SUBSTANCES ARE ASSIMILATED TO, AND BECOME COMPONENT PARTS OF A LIVING BODY  416

CHAPTER I.  OF THE NATURE AND COMPOSITION OF ORGANIZED BODIES IN GENERAL, AS COMPARED WITH INORGANIC MATTER   417  418  419  420  421  422  423  424  425  426  427  428  429  430  431  432  433  434  435  436  437  438  439  440  441  442  443  444  445  446  447
1. Of Organic Bodies considered as Chemical Compounds  418
Of the Chemical Composition of Sugar, Vinegar, Starch, and Wood  425
2. Of the Cause of the Differences in the Sensible Properties of Substances nearly allied in their Chemical Composition  426
Of the Peculiarity of the Composition of Organic Substances  427
Of the Nature of the Agents by which Organic Substances are Produced 432
3. Of the Modes of Operation of Organic Agents  434
Reflections on the Mutual Adaptation of the Elements and the Agents of Organic Nature 442

CHAPTER II. OF THE MODES OF NUTRITION; COMPREHENDING A SKETCH OF THE ALIMENTARY APPARATUS; AND OF ALIMENTARY SUBSTANCES IN PLANTS AND IN ANIMALS   447  448  449  450  451  452  453  454  455  456  457  458  459  460  461  462  463  464  465  466  467  468  469  470  471  472  473  474  475  476  477  478  479  480  481  482  483  484
SECTION I. Of the Modes of the Nutrition of Plants; and of the Nature of those Matters by which their Nutrition is effected  447
SECTION II. Of the Modes of Nutrition in Animals; and of the Alimentary Substances by which they are nourished 454
1. Of the Organs of Digestion in Animals  455
Of the Mouth and its Appendages  456
Of the (Esophagus, the Stomach, and the Intestinal Canal  461
Of the Liver, the Pancreas, and the Spleen 468
Of the Circulation of the Blood, and of the Distribution of the Nerves in the Organs of Digestion 470
2. Of Alimentary Substances composed of the Saccharine, the Oily, and the A ibuminous Principles  473

CHAPTER III. OF THE DIGESTIVE PROCESS; AND OF THE GENERAL ACTION OF THE STOMACH AND THE DUODENUM   484  485  486  487  488  489  490  491  492  493  494  495  496  497  498  499  500  501  502  503  504  505  506  507  508  509  510  511  512  513  514  515  516  517  518  519
Of the Influence of Water as an Essential, and as an Accidental Ingredient of Alimentary Substances 484
Of the Powers exerted by the Stomach in the Digestion of the Food 492
1. Of the Reducing Powers of the Stomach 494
2. Of the Powers of Conversion possessed by the Stomach 502
3. Of the Organizing and Vitalizing Powers of the Stomach 505
Of the Changes the Food undergoes in the Duodenum 506
4. Of the Functions of the Alimentary Canal, beyond the Duodenum 510
Observations on the Choice and the Preparation of Aliment 511
Observations on the General Character of the Assimilating Agency 515

CHAPTER. IV. OF THE PROCESSES OF ASSIMILATION SUBSEQUENT TO THOSE IN THE STOMACH AND ALIMENTARY CANAL; PARTICULARLY OF THE CONVERSION OF THE CHYLE INTO BLOOD. OF RESPIRATION AND ITS USES. OF SECRETION. OF THE FINAL DECOMPOSITION OF ORGANIZED BODIES. GENERAL REFLECTIONS AND CONCLUSION  519  520  521  522  523  524  525  526  527  528  529  530  531  532  533  534  535  536  537  538  539  540  541  542  543  544  545  546  547  548  549  550  551  552  553  554  555  556  557  558  559
1. Of the Passage of the Chyle from the Alimentary Canal into the Sanguiferous System; and of the Function of Absorption generally 519
Process similar to Digestion carried on in all Parts ofthe Body 520
2. Of the Blood 523
Of the Constituents of the Blood  523
Of the Organization of the Blood  525
3. Of Respiration 526
Of the different Colours of Arterial and of Venous Blood  528
Of the Source of the Carbonic Acid in Venous Blood, and of the Gaseous Vapour that is expelled from the Lungs  529
Of the Uses of the continual Extrication of Carbonic Acid from Living Animals  530
4. Of Secretion  532
5. Of the Spontaneous Decay of Organized Bodies 533
Recapitulation of the Mechanical Arrangements of the Digestive Organs, and of the Chemical Changes by which the Food is adapted for Assimilation  536
Reflections on the Mutual Dependence of Plants and Animals. On the Subserviency of their Mechanism to the Chemical Properties of Matter; and on the beneficial Effects of their Renovation and Decay  542

Conclusion. Of the Future Progress of Chemistry; of the Application of Chemistry to Physiological Research; and of the Tendency of Physical Knowledge to elevate the Mind by Displaying the Attributes of the Deity, and the Immensity of His Works  549


APPENDIX
 559  560  561  562  563  564  565  566  567  568  569  570  571

Note on Page 59: Elementary form of electrical energies, &c. 559
Note on Page 74: Diffusion of gaseous bodies. 560
Note on Page 91: Light and Heat. 562
Note on Page 224: Table of Temperatures 564-567
Explanation of the Map (see below) 568
Note on Page 274 - Map (see below). 568
Note on Page 309: Of the effects of foreign bodies in the atmosphere. 569
Note on Page 374: Table of the Proportion to the whole mass of Phanogamous Plants 571

MAP
click on map to view at 100 ppi.
leftmap-middlemap-right
left-200ppi
left-400ppi
middle-200ppi
middle-400ppi
right-200ppi
right-400ppi