titlepage

  reproduced from original documents in the library holdings ofDartmouth College, Hanover, New Hampshire, USA
Copyright © 2002 by Dr. David C. Bossard

frontispiece -- Karl von Zittel

Preface:    v  vi  vii  viii  ix

History of Geology and Palaeontology, Palæontology, D'Archiac Historie des Progrès de la Géologie, Sir Archibald Geikie Founders of Geology,

Translator's Note

CONTENTS.

__________

INTRODUCTION.

 

 


Pages
FIRST PERIOD — GEOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE IN THE AGES OF ANTIQUITY  1-11
  001  002  003  004  005  006  007  008  009  010  011
[002] The Mosaic account of the Creation far excels the Babylonian in its noble simplicity and in the strength and beauty of the language. In it the origin of the world, of the earth and its inhabitants, is represented as the work of a personal Almighty God. The Jews were alone among the great nations of antiquity in realising the godhead as a unity--all powerful, all-embracing.

Babylonian Creation, gods Tiamat and Marduk, Greek cosmogony: Hesiod Theogony, Thales of Miletus, Anaximander (611 BC), Xenophanes of Colophon (624 BC), Herodotus (484 BC), Heraclitus (535 BC),  Pythagoras of Samos (582 BC), Empedocles of Agrigentum (492-432 BC), Leucippus and Democritus of Abdera (c. 490 BC) atomic philosophy,  Anaxagoras of Clazomenae (501 BC), Plato (427 BC) - Atlantas in Timaeus,  Aristotle (384-322 BC) Physics, Theophrastus of Lesbos (368-284 BC) On Stones (lost work on fossils).  Eratosthenes (276-196 BC) accurate estimate of earth size,  Strabo (63 BC) continental subsidence and elevation,  Seneca Physician to Nero (4 BC - 65 AD) Quæstiones Naturales on earthquakes and volcanoes - primitive earth a watery chaos,  Pliny the Elder (23-79 AD) Historia Naturalis in 37 books (died in first outbreak of Vesubius in 79 AD), 

SECOND PERIOD — THE BEGINNINGS OF PALÆONTOLOGY AND GEOLOGY 11-46
Various opinions about Fossils, 13; Hypotheses of the Earth's Origin and history, 23; Beginnings of geological observation, 34; G. L. Leclerc de Buffon, 41; Volcanoes and earthquakes, 44.

[011] the protracted struggle between decaying heathendom and rising Christianity. ... For many centuries (800-1300 AD) the Arabs were the only nation in which the true spirit of ancient culture and inquiry was kept alive. At great sacrifice they obtained possession of the classical works of antiquity, translated them into Arabic.

 011  012  013  014  015  016  017  018  019  020  021  022  023  024  025  026  027  028  029  030  031  032  033  034  035  036  037  038  039  040  041  042  043  044  045  046

[014] Fracastoro (1483-1553) repudiated..the view that explained fossils as creatures left by the great Flood. The Flood, he said, was of short duration, and in the nature of things it would have left not marine but fresh-water mussels behind; further, on the assumption that the mussels had been carried from the ocean to the land by the Flood, their remains would have been scattered over the surface of the land. [rather] the fossils were the remains of animals which had once lived in the localities where their remains are now imbedded.

Caliphs Al Mansur, Harûn-al-Raschid, Al Mamûn, Copernicus (1473-1543), Columbus, Vasco da Gama, Platonic Academy of Cosmo di Medici, Academy in Padua (1520), Academy of Natural Science at Naples (1560), Academy dei Lincei in Rome (1590) founded by Marcese de Monticelli, Académie Française (1663), Royal Society of London (1645), Académie des Sciences in Paris (1666), Akademie der Wissenschaften in Berlin (1700), Academy in St. Petersburg (1725), Royal Society of Sciences in Upsala (1725), Avicenna (980-1037), Albert von Bollstædt (Albertus Magnus) (1193-1280), Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), Alessandro degli Alessandri (1461-1523), Hieronymus Fracastoro (1483-1553),  George Bauer (Agricola) (1494-1555) De natura fossilium - the father of metallurgy (Werner), Conrad Gesner of Zürich (??-1565), Michele Mercati, Metallotheca Vaticana by Lancisi, Martin Lister (1638-1711) laid down the principle that different rocks might be distinguished according to their particular fossil contents. Edward Lhuyd (Luidius), Karl Nikolaus Lang Historia lapidum figuratorum Helvetiae (1708), Johannes Bartholomew Beringer, Lithographia Würceburgensis (1726), Lügensteine = false fossils, Bernard Palissy (1580), Fabio Colonna Osservanzioni subli animali aquatici e terrestrí (1616), Nikolaus Steno, John Ray, John Woodward, Leibnitz, Scheuchzer, Robert Hooke (1635-1703) use of fossils to reveal historical past, Diluvialists = all fossils are vestiges of the great Deluge, Scheuchzer, Specimen Lithogr. Helveticæ Curiosæ (1702), Johann Gesner, Bourguet, Burtin, Johann Baier Oryctographica Norica (1712), Antoine de Jussieu (1718), George Wolfgang Knorr (1705-1761) and Johann Ernst Immanuel Walch (1725-1778) Die Sammlung von Merkwürdigkeiten der Natur und Alterthümer des Erdbodens in 4 volumes - trilobites named, Giordano Bruno (??-1600), Athanasius Kircher (1602-1680) Mundus subterraneus first observed the steady increase of temperature with depth in mines, Varenius Geographia generalis, Nikolaus Steno (1638-1687) De solido intra solidum naturaliter contento (1669) --argued unfossiliferous rocks were formed before life existed on the earth, at a time when the earth was enveloped in a universal ocean, Descartes (1596-1650) Principia Philosophiæ, George F. Leibnitz (1646-1716) Protogæa,  Dr. Thomas Burnet, (1681), John Woodward (1665-1722) Sacred Theory of the EarthNatural History of the Earth and Terrestrial Bodies (1695),  William Whiston (1666-1753) Theory of the Earth, John Ray Three Physicotheological Discourses (1693), Antonio Vallisnieri (1661-1730), Antonio Lazzaro Moro (1687-1740), De Maillet Telliamed (1715), Needham - Mosaic Days are periods of protacted langth,  Justi Geschichte des erakörpers (1771), Friedrich Mylius, John Strachey, Holloway, Spada, Schiavo, Donati, Baldassari, Targioni Tozetti, Christopher Packe first geological map in (1743) A  New Philosophical-Chorographical Chart of East Kent , Johann Gottlob Lehmann (??-1767) Versuch einer Geschichte des Flötzgebirge (stratified rocks) (1756), G. Christian Füchsel (1722-1773), Giovanni Ardulino (1713-95) first divided rocks int Primitive (unfossiliferous), Secondary and Tertiary groups, Gottlieb Gläser first coloured geological map (1775), Wilhelm von Charpentier Mineralogy of Chur-Saxony, Jean Etienne Guettard (1715-86) mineralogical atlas of France,Giraud Soulavie, Historie naturelle de la France meridionale (1780), Rouelle, Johann Ferber, Ignaz von Born, George Louis Leclerc de Buffon (1707-1788) Théorie de la Terre (1749), Époques de la Nature (1778), Martin Lister, Lemery, Faujas de Saint-Fond (172-1819) On the Extinct Volcanoes of vivarais and Velay, 





THIRD PERIOD — THE HEROIC AGE OF GEOLOGY FROM 1790-1820 46-145
Pallas and De Saussure, 49; A. G. Werner and his school, 56; Leopold von Buch 61; Alexander von Humboldt, 64; Hutton, Playfair, and J. Hall, 67; Theories of the Earth's Origin, proposed by De Luc, De la Métherie, Breislak, Kant, Laplace, 75; Local geognostic descriptions and stratigraphy: (a) Germany, 81; (b) Austria-Hungary and the Alps, 87; (c) Italy, 94; (d) France, Belgium, Holland, and the Iberian Peninsula, 100; (e) Great Britain, 108, (f) Scandinavia and Russia, 115; (g) America, Asia, Australia, Africa, 119; Progress of Petrography: Neptunists, Volcanists, and Plutonists, 122; Palæontology, 125; Text-books and handbooks of Geognosy and Geology, 142.

 046  047  048  049  050  051  052  053  054  055 

Abraham Gottlob Werner (1749-1817) On the External Characters of Fossils, geognosy, William Smith the father of historical geology was the first to make known that the stratified rocks of England could be identified and arranged in chronological order according to their organic content, Alexandre Brongniart, Cuvier catastrophy theory, Lamarck, Schlotheim, Sowerby, Hutton, Dolomieu, Von Humboldt, Von Buch, Breislak, Peter Simon Pallas (1741-1811) explored Russia, Siberia, Crimea, Horace Benedicte de Saussure (1740-1799) Voyage dans les Alpes,and Instructions to Young Geologists

A.G. Werner and his School 56  056  057  058  059  060  061  062  063  064  065  066

Franz Ambros Reuss, D'Aubisson de Voisins Traité de Géognosie (1819), Jameson Elements of Geognosy (1808), Voigt, Werner New Theory of the Origin of Mineral Veins, Leopold von Buch (1774-1852) The greatest geologist of his time Through Norway and Lapland (1806) A Physical Description of the Canary Islands (1825), Alexander von Humboldt (1769-1859) Travels in the Equinoctial Regions on the New Continent in 20 volumes, The Cosmos.

Hutton, Playfair and Hall 67  067  068  069  070  071  072  073  074

[072] Hutton's genius first gave to geology the conception of calm, inexorable nature working little by little -- by the raindrop, by the stream, by insidious decay, by slow waste, by the life and death of all organised creatures -- and eventually accomplishing surface transformations on a scale more gigantic than was ever imagined in the philosophy of the ancients or the learning of the Schools.

James Hutton (1726-1797) Theory of the Earth (1785, 1795), Sir James Hall (1762-1831), John Playfair (1748-1819) Illustration of the Huttonian Theory (1802),

Theories of the Earth's Origin proposed by De Luc &c. 75  075  076  077  078  079  080

Jean André de Luc Physical and Moral Letters on the History of the Earth and of Man (1779) in 5 volumes, Elementary Treatise of geology, De la Métherie (1791), Théorie de la Terre, Scipio Breislak (1748-1826) Text-book of Geology, Immanuel Kant Naturgeschichte des Himmels (1755), Laplace exposition du Système du Monde (1796),

Local Geognostic Descriptions and Stratigraphy--

A. Germany 81  081  082  083  084  085  086

Georg Lasius (1752-1833) Observations on the Harz Mountains (1789), Johann Karl Wilhelm Voigt (1752-1821) Mineralogical Journey through the Duchy of Weimar and Eisenach (1781-5) Text-book of Geognosy (1792),  Johann Ludwig Heim (1741-1819) Geological Descriptions of the Thuringian Forest, Johann Karl Freiesleben (1774-1846) Description of the Harz Mountains (1799), Leopold von Buch Attempt at a Geognostic Description of Silesia, Mathias von Flurl (1756-1823) A Description of the Mountains of Bavaria and the Upper Pfalz,

B. Austria-Hungary and the Alps 87  087  088  089  090  091  092  093

Johann Ehrenreich von Fichtel (1732-95) Mineralogy of Transylvania, Hans Conrad Escher (1767-1823)


C. Italy 94  094  095  096  097  098  099

D. France, Belgium, Holland, and the Iberian Peninsula 100  100  101  102  103  104  105  106  107

Brongniart and Cuvier work on Paris Basin (1808) first work to adopt method of William Smith, Jean Baptiste Julien d'Omalius d'Halloy (1783-1875) geological map of France and adjoining territories of Belgium, Germany and Switzerland (1822) in D'Halloy Text-book of geology.

E. Great Britain 108  108  109  110  111  112  113  114

William Smith (1769-1839) the Father of English Geology, the first to recognize the importance of fossils in their full significance as a means of determining the relative age of strata, Strata identified by Organized Fossils, containing Prints of the most characteristic specimens in each stratum (1816-1819) in 4 volumes (incomplete), George Bellas Greenough (1778-1855) founder of Geological Society of London, Geological Map of England and Wales (1819) based in part on William Smith's, John MacCulloch (1773-1835) Description of the W.I. of Scotland (1819), William Buckland (1784-1856), Conybeare

F. Scandinavia and Russia 115  115  116  117  118

Urban Hiärne (1641-1724), Carl von Linné (Linnaeus) (1707-78) founder of constructive geology in Sweden Systema Naturæ (1768 edition) complete list of fossils know to him, Erich Pontoppidan Natural History of Norway (1753), Leopold von Buch Journey to Norway and Lapland (1810), Johan Georg Gmelin Reise durch Siberien (1752)

G. America, Asia, Australia, Africa 119  119  120  121

Guettard Canadian Fossils 1752, Maclure (1763-1840) treatise and map on geology of the United States (1809), Patrin Account of his Travels in the Altaï Mountains (1783)

Progress of Petrography --

Neptunists, volcanists and Plutonists.122  122  123  124

Palæontology 125  125  126  127  128  129  130  131  132  133  134  135  136  137  138  139  140  141

Baron Ernst von Schlotheim (1764-1832) study of fossils (1820),  Petrefaktenkunde, Defrance Sketch of Fossil Organisms (1824),  James Parkinson Organic remains of a Former World (1804-11), Miller of Danzig Natural History of the Crinoidea or Lily-shaped Animals (1821), Denis de Montfort Systematic conchology (1808-10), Jean Baptiste de Monet, Chevalier de Lamarck (1744-1829) Natural History of Invertebrate Animals (1815-22) Lamarck held that acquired characters could be transmitted to descendents, James Sowerby Mineral Conchology of Great Britain (1812 - completed 1845 by his son James de Carle Sowerby), J.C.M. Reinecke Monograph of the Ammonites occurring in Coburg and Franconia (1818), Leop. Chr. Friedr. dagobert Georges Cuvier (1769-1832) erected Comparative Anatomy into an independent science and defined principles upon which the investigation of fossil Vertebrates could be carried out with accuracy. Researches on Fossil Bones (1812, last ed. 1834-36) 10 Vols of text and 2 vols of plates - In the whole literature of comparative anatomy and palæontology there is scarcely any work that can rank with this great masterpiece of Cuvier, William Buckland Reliquiæ diluvianæ (1823)

Textbooks and Handbooks of Geognosy and Geology 142  142  143  144  145




FOURTH PERIOD — NEWER DEVELOPMENT OF GEOLOGY AND PALÆONTOLOGY 145-152
General survey, 145; The influence of the Universities, of Geological Societies, and of the Geological Survey Departments, 146.

 145  146  147  148  149  150  151  152

[145] The leaders of thought, whose activities towards the close of the eighteenth, and in the first twenty years of the nineteenth century, won for geology an acknowledged place as a scientific study, were almost all of them men of independent means. Only a limited number of the founders of geology and palæontolgy belonged to teaching bodies. The universities were unwilling to countenance young and indefinite sciences, and only tardily incorporated them in their academical curricula.




CHAPTER I.


COSMICAL GEOLOGY 153-171
Cosmogony, 153; The Sun, 156; The fixed stars and planets, 157; The Moon, 161; Meteorites and falling stars, 163; Geogeny, 166

 153  154  155  156  157  158  159  160  161  162  163  164  165  166  167  168  169  170  171

[154] By the use of the spectrosscope it has been ascertained that all matter has essentially the same constitution throughout the universe, the same substances taking part in the comosition of the earth, the sun, the fixed stars, and the planetary nebula.

[162] The American geologist Gilbert has contested the opinion generally accepted at the present day, that the craters and ring-shaped ramparts in the moon are volcanic in their origin. Gilbert regards them as impressions made upon the moon by the collision of gigantic meteorites.

> Cosmogony - origins of the universe and earth, Kirchhoff and Bunson - spectroscope (1859), theories of Kant and Laplace, Faye, Sur l'Origine du Monde (1896), mechanical theory of heat, condensation heat source of stellar radiation, Contrary rotation of satellites of Uranus and Neptune, David Fabricius movable spots on the sun (1610), Geogeny, Henry de la Beche Researches in Theoretical Geology.





CHAPTER II.


PHYSIOGRAPHICAL GEOLOGY 172-185
Form, size, and weight of the Earth, 175; The Earth's internal heat and the constitution of its interior, 175; Morphology of the Earth's surface, 181.

 172  173  174  175  176  177  178  179  180  181  182  183  184  185

[173] [The Cosmos]  a magnificent physical description of the world gives a complete account of the knowledge of natural science in all civilised races up to the middle of the nineteenth century. It is a more extensive work than had ever before been undertaken by a single indiidual. ... it is a mirror of the world, of the most faithful kind.

[175] All determinations of the earth's gravity agree in showing that the gravity of the earth as a whole is very much greater than the gravity of the rocky crust, which has an average gravity not exceeding 2.5. Thus we know the imporant geological fact that the interior of the earth is neither empty nor can it be filled with water, but it must consist of substances of very great weight.

Physiographical geology, Bernhard Varenius Geographica Generalis (1672), Alexander von Humboldt The Cosmos (1845), seismological observations,




CHAPTER III.


DYNAMICAL GEOLOGY 186-323
General survey, 186; Carl von Hoff, 187; Sir Charles Lyell, 189; (a) Geological action of the atmosphere, 197; (b) Geological action of water — Springs, 200; Chemical action of water,  202; Erosion, 203; Denudation, 214; Mechanical sediments, 215; Chemical deposits in water, 217; (c) Geological effects of ice, 220; Glaciers, 220; The Ice Age, 222; (d) Geological action of organisms, 239; Peat, 240; Coals, 240; Siliceous earth, 243; Algal and foraminiferal limestone, 243; Coral reefs, 245; Petroleum, 253; (e) Volcanoes, 254; (f) Earthquakes, 280; (g) Secular movements of' upheaval and depression 285; (h) Older dislocations in the earth's crust, 295; Tectonic structure and origin of the continents and mountain-chains, 306.


General survey, 186; Carl von Hoff,  187  188  Sir Charles Lyell,  189  190  191  192  193  194  195  196

Dynamical Geology, Simon Stevin (1548-1620), Carl Ernst Adolf von Hoff, Cuvier's catastrophe theory, Charles Lyell (1797-1875) Principles of Geology (1830), Travels in North America (1845), uniformitarianism, W. Hooker Flora of Australia (1859), Charles Darwin Origin of Species (1859), Lyell On the Age of the Human Race (1863), Sir Henry de la Beche How to Observe (or The Ggeological Observer) (1835).

(a) Geological action of the atmosphere,  197  198  199

(b) Geological action of water —

Springs,  200  201  202

Chemical action of water,  202;

Erosion,  203  204  205  206  207  208  209  210  211  212  213  214 

Denudation, 214;

Mechanical sediments,  215  216  

Chemical deposits in water,  217  218  219 

Karl Gustav Bischof (1792-1870) (1846-47), sand-pipes, subterranean caverns, origin of caves, Dana Text-book of Chemical and Physical GeologyReports of Wilkes' Exploring Expedition and Manual of Geology (1863), Newberry Report upon Colorado (1861), gilbert Geology of the Henry Mountains (1877), J. W. Powell,

(c) Geological effects of ice, 220;

Glaciers,  220  221

The Ice Age, 222  223  224  225  226  227  228  229  230  231  232  233  234  235  236  237  238  239

Scheuchzer Reisebeschreibung der Schweizer Alpen, De Saussure Book of Travels (1796-1803), Louis Jean Rudolph Agassiz (1807-1873) Fossil Fishes To the last Agassiz combated Darwin's theory of evolution, Agassiz work on glaciers (1840) Systéme Glaciaire (1847) ice age theory,  Charpentier Essai sur les Glaciers (1841) one of the greatest contributions to geology of his time,  Sir Andrew Crombie Ramsay (1814-??) Text-book of the Physical Geology and Geography of Great Britain (1864-78) demonstrated that almost the whole of Great Britain had been covered by a vast ice-sheet, Penck The Glaciation of the German Alps (1882)


(d) Geological action of organisms, 239;

[239] Animal creation serves as an intermediary between the atmosphere and the earth's surface, utilising and metabolising matter derived from both, and effecting transferences from one to the other.

Peat, 240;

Coals,  240  241  242

Siliceous earth, 243;

Algal and foraminiferal limestone,  243  244

Coral reefs,  245  246  247  248  249  250  251  252  253

[249] Charles Darwin's theory assumes that every atoll reef was originally the fringing reef of some island, but owing to the subsidence of the ocean-floor, the fringing reef was gradually converted into a barrier reef, and finally, by continued subsidence of the floor, passed into the form of an atoll. [252] In general, most scientific authorities on coral reefs at the present day no longer accept Darwin's theory of widespread subsidence as applicable to the American or Ausstralian reefs, or to those of the Red Sea.

Petroleum, 253;

Rennie Essays on Peat-Moss (1810), coral reefs - Reinhold Forster, Kotzebue voyage of exploration (1814-18), Adalbert von Chamisso, Freycinet Expedition (1818-20), Ehrenberg On the structure and Form of the Coral Growths in the Red Sea (1834 in Abhandlungen of the Berlin Academy), Charles Darwin The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs (1842), Beagle Expedition (1832-1834), James Dana Wilkes Expedition (1839-40) investigated coral reefs and accepted Darwin's theory.


(e) Volcanoes,  254  255  256  257  258  259  260  261  262  263  264  265  266  267  268  269  270  271  272  273  274  275  276  277  278  279 

Controversy between Neptunists and Vulcanists, Alexander von Humboldt, Leopold von Buch On the Geognostic relations of the Trap Porphyry(1813), Dr. Charles Daubeny Description of Active and Extinct Volcanoes, etc.  (1826) tabulation of active volcanoes, George Poulett-Scrope (1797-1875), Charles Lyell, Constant Prévost sent by French Government to study the newly-formed Graham's Island. The island vanished in three months and Prévost was one of the few favoured individuals who had succeeded in visiting and making drawings of it. Ami Boué Geological Essay on Scotland (1820) distinguished between basaltic sheets and dykes, Sir Archibald Geikie The Ancient Volcanoes of Great Britain (1897), Alexander von Humboldt first to explore Mexican volcanoes, Suess Der Antlitz der Erde (1888), Dr. Reyer, Theoretische Geologie (1888)

(f) Earthquakes,  280  281  282  283  284

R. Hoernes Erdbehenkunde, (1893), Robert Mallet & J. W. Mallet Earthquake Catalogue for the period 1606-1858,

(g) Secular movements of' upheaval and depression  285  286  287  288  289  290  291  292  293  294

Hjärne conducted direct observation by having marks hewn on the rocks of the coast - Changes in the sea level in Scandanavia (1702), Playfair attributed changes to an elevation of the land in objection to theory of Celsius that the changes were due to lowering of the ocean-surface,

Robert Chambers Ancient Sea-Margins, Suess Das Antlitz der Erde,

(h) Older dislocations in the earth's crust,  295  296  297  298  299  300  301  302  303  304  305

(i) Tectonic structure and origin of the continents and mountain-chains,  306  307  308309  310  311  312  313  314  315  316  317  318  319  320  321  322  323 

[304] James Dwight Dana (1813-1895) was the geologist who first gave clear expression to the theory of horizontal compression in explanation of the origin of mountains. His reports on the geology of the Pacific Ocean, the volcanoes of the Sandwich Islands and coral reefs,  as well as his comprehensive works on Zoophytes and crustaceans, are among the finest productions in the literature of scientific travel.


Léonce Élie de Beaumont (1798-1874) geological map of France (1843) with Dufrenoy and Brochant de Villiers, On Mountain-Systems (1852 in 3 volumes) mountain-folding due to shrinking earth radius, James Dwight  Dana (1813-18895) horizontal compression formed mountaions, geo-synclinals, Joseph le Conte,  Eduard Suess (1831-1914) Das Antlitz der Erde (The Face of the Earth) (3 vols: 1883-85, 1888, 19??) surveys history of terrestrial change during the geological epochs, Heim Untersuchungen über den Mechanismus der Gebirgsbildung (1878), Bailey Willis, The Mechanics of Appalachian Structure (1888), Köhler (1886), Reyer, Die Störungen der Gänge, Flötze und LagerTheoretische Geolgie (1888), crust tectonics, Gondwana Land




CHAPTER IV.


PETROGRAPHY 324-362
Werner, 324; Nicol, 326; Ehrenberg, 326; C. F. Naumann, 327; G. Bischof, 327; H. Clifton Sorby, 328; Ferdinand Zirkel, 329; Vogelsang, 329; Rosenbusch, 331; Fouqué and Michel-Lévy, 334; Scheerer, 342; Durocher, 343; A. Daubrée, 344; Origin of rocks, 346; Teall, 349; Broegger, 350; Crystalline schists, 352; Metamorphism of rocks, 354; Dynamo-metamorphism, 357; Lapworth, 360.

 324  325  326  327  328  329  330  331  332  333  334  335  336  337  338  339  340  341  342  343  344  345  346  347  348  349  350  351  352  353  354  355  356  357  358  359  360  361  362

Carl Cäser von Leonhard (1779-1862) Charakteristik der Felsarten (1823), Pierre Louis Antoine Cordier (1777-1862), Ehrenberg microscopic studies, limestones composed of diatoms & foraminifera Mikrogeologie (1854), Naumann Lehrbuch (1850) representation of the state of petrography. Gustav Bischof Text-book of Chemical and Physical Geology, Henry Clifton Sorby revolutionised the teaching of petrography. He deduced (1858) the aqueous or volcanic origin in crystals from the presence of fluid, gaseous, crystalline, vitreous and slaggy inclusions, Ferdinand Zirkel Lehrbuch der Petrographie (1866) and Die Mikroskopische Beschaffenheit der Mineralien und Felsarten (1873) made use of polarised light in analysing crystalline composition and structure, Volgesang Philosophie der Geologie und Mikroskopische Gesteins-Studien (1867), Rosenbusch Die Mikroskopische Pysiographie der petrographisch wichtigen Mineralien (1873, 2nd Ed 1885) and Elements of Petrology (1898), Michel-Lévy & Lacroix Les Minéraux des Roches (1888),




CHAPTER V.


PALÆONTOLOGY 363-424
General principles, 363; Fossil plants, 368; Fossil animals, 375; Protozoa, 383; Spongida, 386; Cœlelenterata, 388; Echinodermata, 392; Brachiopoda, 397; Mollusca, 400; Lamellibranchiata, 401; Gastropoda, 401; Cephalopoda, 402; Arthropoda, 406; Vertebrata, 409; Fishes, 410; Amphibians, 412; Reptiles, 415; Birds, 418; Mammals, 418.

[363] After William Smith, Alexandre Brongniart, and Cuvier had disclosed to geologists the significance that attached to fossils as organic relics characteristic of successive geological epochs, some of the most enlightened scientific men of the day shared the increased interest in the study of fossils, and ... directed their genius to the examination, identification, and classification of fossils in the light of comparison with the existing plant and animal world.

 363  364  365  366  367  368  369  370  371  372  373  374  375  376  377  378  379  380  381  382  383  384  385  386  387  388  389  390  391  392  393  394  395  396  397  398  399  400  401  402  403  404  405  406  407  408  409  410  411  412  413  414  415  416  417  418  419  420  421  422  423  424

Palæontology or Petrefaktenkunden, stratigraphical palaeontology - determine true order and relative age of rock deposits, biological palaeontology - determine the genesis and evolution of living forms, Heinrich Georg Bronn (1800-1862) (1835-38) first attempt at Chronological succession of fossil organisms, Bronn & H. von Meyer Lethæa Geognostica (1835-8), Bronn and Goeppert & H. von Meyer Index Palæontologica (1848-9), Georg August Goldfuss (1782-1848) and Count George Münster (1776-1844) Petrefacta Germaniæ, Alcide d'Orbigny Paléontologie Française (1840-55) & Elementary Course of Palæontology and Stratigraphical Geology (1849), Buckland (1836) Mineralogy and Geology impresses upon the reader the confirmation given by the geological record to the words of Holy Writ; then follows an attractively written account of fossil organisms, G. A. Mantell Medals of Creation (1844), François Jules Pictet (1809-1872), Traité élémentaire de Paléontologie (1844-46), H. B. Geinitz The Princiiples of Palæontology (1846), G. C. Giebel Palæontology (1852), F. A. Quenstedt Petrefactenkunde (1852) and Petrefaktenkunde Deutschlands (published between 1846-1878), Sir Richard Owen Palæontology (1860), Oswald Heer (1809-1883) The Primeval World of Switzerland (1864) - In his opinion the variations of species and genera were not accomplished by slow modifications but at definite periods of creation by a more or less complete re-modelling of previously existing species., Freiherr von Ettingshausen (1862-1897) Physiotypia Plantarum Austriacarum (1867) showed the importance of leaf venation for the systematic identification of isolated fossil leaves, Karl A. von Zittel Handbook of Palæontology (1876-93 in 4 volumes) with S. Scudder, W. Schimper and A. Schenk,




CHAPTER VI.


STRATIGRAPHICAL GEOLOGY 425-541
A. The early foundations of stratigraphy, 425; B. Special stratigraphy, 438; (a) Archæan and pre-Cambrian rocks, 439; (b) Cambrian and Silurian Systems, 441; (c) Devonian system, 448; (d) Carboniferous system, 450; (e) Permian system, 453; (f) Triassic system, 459; (g) Jurassic system, 497; (h) Cretaceous system, 514; (i) Tertiary system, 526; (k) Quaternary formations, 538.

 
A. The early foundations of stratigraphy, 425  426  427  428  429  430  431  432  433  434  435  436  437

Füchsel defined the term Formation in 1762 for a series of strata accumulated under similar conditions and in immediate succession to one another, Paul Ger. Deshayes (1796-1896) , P. Desnoyers, H.G. Bronn, Tertiary subdivisions named by Lyell: Eocene, Miocene, Pliocene, Pleistocene, Adam Sedgwick (1785-1873) and Roderick Impey Murchison (1792-1871)  subdivided the strata below the coal measures, Murchison The Silurian System (1839), Lonsdale, John Phillips (1800-1874) nephew of William Smith coined terms Palaeozoic (Transitional series - Cambrian through Devonian), Mesozoic (Secondary series) and Cainozoic (Tertiary series), Murchison Siluria (1854)

B. Special stratigraphy,  438 

(a) Archæan and pre-Cambrian rocks,  439  440

Van Hise  pre-Cambrian formation in North America (1892), Algonnkian, Archaean,

(b) Cambrian and Silurian Systems,  441  442  443  444  445  446  447

C. D. Walcott,  James Hall (1811-1898), Lapworth proposed the designation Ordovician for the Lower Silurian/Upper Cambrian, Joachim Barrande (1799-1883) Fauna of the Silurian Basin in Bohemia (22 quarto volumes 1852-1883)

(c)
Devonian system,  448  449

(d) Carboniferous system,  450  451  452

Frech, Lethæa Palæozoica (1897), Productus giganteus,

(e)
Permian system,  453  454  455  456  457  458

Medlicott, Gondwana System

(f)
Triassic system,  459  460  461  462  463  464  465  466  467  468  469  470  471  472  473  474  475  476  477  478  479  480  481  482  483  484  485  486  487  488  489  490  491  492  493  494  495  496  

Friedrich August von Alberti (1795-1878) Monograph of the Bunter Sandstone, Muschelkalk and Keuper and their union as a formation (1834) coined term Trias, Quenstedt Flötz Series of Wurtemberg (1843), Baron F. von Richthofen Geognostische Beschreibung der Umgegend von Predazzo, St. Cassian, und der Seisser Alp (1860),

(g) Jurassic system,  497  498  499  500  501  502  503  504  505  506  507  508  509  510  511  512  513

[497] In the very beginning of the nineteenth century the fundamental features of the Jurassic succession had been so securely established by William Smith that subsequent observers had little to amend. The Jurassic deposits have attained a remarkably typical and perfect development in England. ... The straightforward aspect of the stratigraphical relations, together with the characteristic lilthological development of each individual member of the series, and the extraordinary wealth of fossil remains, has rendered England the classic ground of the Jurassic system.

John Phillips geology of Yorkshire (1829), Terrain Jurassique, Jura limestone, Bunter sandstone, Molasse, Count von Mandelslohe Sur la Constitution géologique de l'Albe du Wurtemberg (1836), Friedrich Hoffman General Survey of the Orographic and Geognostic Relations of North-Western Germany (1830), Amanz Gressly (1814-1865), Constant Prévost, Leopold von Buch On the Jurassic Rocks in Germany (1839), F. A. Quenstedt Das Flötzgebirge Würtembergs (1843 & 1851) and Der Jura (1858), Alcide Dessaline d'Orbigny (1802-1857)  Paléontologie Française (1840-55) a work of first rank, Albert Oppel (1831-1865)

(h) Cretaceous system,  514  515  516  517  518  519  520  521  522  523  524  525

Horace Woodward Geology of England and Wales (1887), Edmond Hébert (1812-1890)

(i)
Tertiary system,  526  527  528  529  530  531  532  533  534  535  536  537

D'Archiac and Haime Historie des Progrès de la Géologie (1853), Sir Joseph Prestwich (1812-1896)

(j)
Quaternary formations,  538  539  540  541



PORTRAITS

AND

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES


 


Portrait
click on image for full page  view
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